Practicability of Ahinsä

Since Jainism has prescribed the doctrine of Ahinsä as its cardinal principle, the entire Jain ethical code has been laid down with a view of transforming this principle into actual practice. As a result, maximum importance has been attached to the observance of Ahinsä as a basis of right conduct leading to the attainment of salvation. Further, taking into account the comprehensive nature of the doctrine of Ahinsä and the necessity of carefulness required in putting the doctrine into practice. The Jain scriptures have specifically prescribed the rules of conduct to the minutest details, in connection with the observance of the Ahinsä vow in all its aspects, and in making it as faultless as possible. However, realizing extremely wide theoretical dimensions of these rules of conduct, and the minute implications involved in the actual observance of these rules of conduct continuously and without any possible fault, a question is sometimes raised about the practicability of the vow of Ahinsä. It is feared that it would be difficult to put the vow of Ahinsä into practice. However, from a close examination of the injunctions laid down by Jain scriptures for the actual observance of the vow of Ahinsä it can be seen that the fear is quite unfounded.

Concept of Hinsä (Violence)

Among the-twelve Vratas or vows prescribed for continuous observance in Shrävak’s daily life by Jain religion, the first five Vratas or vows are regarded as the main Vratas or vows and even among these main Vratas or vows the first and the prominent position has been assigned to the Vrata or vow of Ahinsä. Since this Ahinsä-Vrata is based on the fundamental principle of avoidance of or abstention from Hinsä, injury to sentient beings, it is quite necessary to understand the concept of Hinsä as delineated by Jainism.

Hinsä: Sthul and Sukshma (Gross and Subtle)

In Jain scriptures, a distinction has been made between Sthul Hinsä and Sukshma Hinsä. The Sthul Hinsä entails the destruction of the higher forms of life from Dvindriyas (two-sensed beings and upwards) and it is forbidden to all Jains. On the other hand, the Sukshma Hinsä means taking of life in any form including even the killing of Ekendriyas (one sensed beings) and it is obligatory for the Jain ascetics to abstain from this kind of Hinsä. The lay Jain is also enjoined to avoid as far as possible the killing, and certainly the useless destruction of Ekendriyas also called Sthävar-Jivs, (immobile souls).

Hinsä: Dravya and Bhäva (Physical and Spiritual)

It has been stated that Hinsä does not depend on acts alone: the Vrata will be broken merely by the absence of compassion shown when a man allows himself to be carried away by anger. Hence, a distinction has been made between Dravya Hinsä, (the actual hurt or injury) and Bhäva Hinsä, (the intention to hurt or injure) to the Präna (vitality).

Hinsä: Bähya and Antargata (External and Internal)

In Jain scriptures, Hinsä is also classified on the basis of Bähya (external aspects) and Antargata, (internal aspects). Obviously, the Bähya Hinsä relates to the external or actual acts of killing or injury and Antargata Hinsä relates to the internal or intentional side of committing of injury.

Hinsä: Vyavahär and Nishchaya (Practical and Real)

The concept of Hinsä has been discussed in detail in the Jain scriptures both from the Vyavahär Naya (the practical point of view) and from the Nishchaya Naya (the real point of view).

The following aphorism presents the definition of violence: "Pramattayogät Präna-vyaparopanam Hinsä," or "the destruction of life due to an act involving negligence is violence". The term Pramäda yields two meanings: (1) mental state of attachment and aversion and (2) negligence. Therefore, to destroy life of a living being through passions of attachment and aversion is violence; and to destroy life of a living being through negligence is also violence.

On the same lines, another classic Jain text, Purushärtha Siddhi-Upäya, asserts that passion is the moving cause, which leads to Hinsä and gives the meaning of Hinsä in following terms. “Any injury whatsoever to the material or conscious vitalities caused through passionate activity of mind, body or speech is definitely Hinsä.”

From the Nishchaya (real point of view) Hinsä is related to the internal aspects or to the intentional side of injury. Even to neglect ones own soul i.e.: to let soul stay in Mithyätva stage is also a Hinsä. It is stated that Hinsä is caused even when passions to hurt others arise in the mind. That is why the essence of Hinsä and Ahinsä, according to the Jain scriptures, has been clearly put forward in the authoritative text of Purushärtha-Siddhi-Upäya in the following terms: "Assuredly, the non-appearance of attachment and other passions is Ahinsä, and their appearance is Hinsä. This is the summary of the Jain scripture."

Ahinsä-Vrata (The Vow of Ahinsä)

Since the very idea of Hinsä has been considered quite abominable and has been condemned in strongest possible terms in Jain philosophy, the ethical code laid down for the Jains has given maximum importance to the observance of the Ahinsä-Vrata, which puts into practice the principle of avoidance of Hinsä in actual life. Naturally, Jainism has assigned the first position to the vow of Ahinsä among the five main vows prescribed for continuous observance by its followers. It is, therefore, necessary to see and understand the various aspects and implications of the Jain vow of Ahinsä.

Ahinsä Mahä-vrata (Major Vows)

Ahinsä has been treated as the first of the five Mahä-vratas, (great vows) prescribed by the Jain religion. Ahinsä Mahä-vrata has been defined in 'Ratna-Karanda-Shrävakächär' as "abstaining from the commission of five sins, Hinsä and the rest in their three forms, Krita, (actions) Karita (by getting it done through others) and Anumodana, (encouraging) with the mind, speech and the body constitutes the Mahä Vrata of great ascetics."

In simple terms, it means that the Ahinsä Mahä-vrata involves the avoidance of Hinsä. The Hinsä can be committed by three kinds of Yoga (activities): of mind, speech and body.

In addition to these three Yogas, Hinsä can be committed by three kinds of Karana (action): Krita, (by doing it oneself); Karita, (by getting it done through others); and Anumata or Anumodana, (by approving or appreciating to others doing it). Further, by the combination of these Yogas and Karanas, it is clear that Hinsä can be committed in 9 ways, by the application of 3 Karanas to each of the 3 Yogas. Since this Ahinsä Mahä-vrata is extremely difficult to practice, it is prescribed only for observance by monks and nuns.

Ahinsä-Anu-vrata (Minor Vows)

Taking into account the extreme severity involved in the observance of Ahinsä Mahä-vrata, the Jain scriptures have prescribed the vow of Ahinsä with a lessened degree of intensity for the observance by the householders and called it Ahinsä Anu-vrata. The authoritative sacred book 'Ratna-karanda-Shrävakächär' has defined as "Refraining from injuring living beings having two or more senses, with a deliberate act of the mind, speech or body, in any of the two ways, Krita and Karita is called Ahinsä Anu-Vrata by the wise."

Thus, in Ahinsä Anu-vrata, a layman does not intentionally injure any form of life above the class of one-sensed beings (vegetables and the like) by an act of the mind, speech, or body or by Krita or Karita.

Classification of Hinsä: (Violence)

Hinsä has been classified into 2 categories:

· Ärambhaja or Ärambhi Hinsä, (occupational injury)

· Anärambhaja or Anärambhi or Sankalpi Hinsä, (non-occupational or intentional injury)

In this connection, Ächärya Amitagati, the famous Jain saint and author, in an authoritative treatise entitled "Shrävakächär" has given the two major kinds of Hinsä and their application in actual practice by the people in the following terms: "Hinsä has, by the learned, been said to be of two kinds, Ärambhaja, arising from occupations, and Anärambhaja, not due to any occupation. He who has renounced the life of householder certainly avoids both kinds of Hinsä. One with mild passion, while living the life of a householder, cannot of course avoid Ärambhaja Hinsä when performing various occupations."

It means that Hinsä or injury involved in the actual execution or conduct of occupations is known as Ärambhi Hinsä and that Hinsä not inherent or unrelated to occupations but committed with the objective of fulfilling certain desires is called Anärambhi or Sankalpi Hinsä. Hunting, offering animal sacrifices, killing for food, amusement, or decoration are illustrations of Anärambhi or Sankalpi Hinsä and every thinking person without any difficulty or harm to himself or herself can avoid it.

Again, Ärambhi Hinsä is further sub-divided into three types:

Udyami Hinsä	Industrial injury
Gruhärambhi Hinsä	Domestic injury
Virodhi Hinsä	Defensive injury

Udyami Hinsä is injury that is unavoidably committed in the exercise of one's profession or occupation.

Gruhärambhi Hinsä is the kind of injury, which is invariably committed in the performance of necessary domestic acts, such as preparation of food, keeping the house, body, clothes and other things clean, construction of buildings, wells, gardens, and other structures, and keeping cattle for farming purpose.

Virodhi Hinsä is the kind of injury which is necessarily committed in defense of person and property, against thieves, robbers, assailants, and enemies, in meeting their aggression, and in causing the least possible injury, necessary under the circumstances, in which one may find oneself.

Thus, in general, Hinsä is divided into four kinds:

Udyami Hinsä	Industrial injury
Gruhärambhi Hinsä	Domestic injury
Virodhi Hinsä	Defensive injury
Sankalpi Hinsä	Intentional injury

In this regard, it has been ordained by Jain religion that one who has renounced all household connections and has adopted the discipline of a monk or nun should avoid all the four kinds of Hinsä.

At the same time it has also been laid down that one who is still in the householder's stage should abstain from (Sankalpi Hinsä) intentional injury, and should try one's best to avoid three kinds of (Ärambhi Hinsä) occupational injury, as far as it is possible. It is quite impossible for a householder to abstain completely from Ärambhi Hinsä.

Householder’s observance of non-violence just like ascetics is not possible. Therefore, he observes partial forms of non-violence.

Observance of Non-Violence by Householders:

· He/She will avoid intentional injury and will reduce violence as much as possible for industrial, domestic, and defensive purposes.

· He/She will avoid major violence and reduce minor violence as much as possible.

· He/She will reduce/avoid as much as possible both the intentions of violence and the acts of violence.

Out of the nine fold acts of violence, a householder will avoid six folds, and the remaining three folds will be reduced as much as possible.

Observance of Non-Violence By Ascetics

The circumstances of the ascetics are different from that of the householders. While the householders have to observe Ahinsä of partial renunciation (Apavädiki Nivritti), the ascetics are required to observe complete renunciation (Autsargiki Nivritti).

The ascetics avoid all four kinds of Hinsä, namely:

Industrial injury	Udyami Hinsä
Domestic injury	Gruhärambhi Hinsä
Defensive or protective injury	Virodhi-Hinsä
Intentional injury	Sankalpi Hinsä

As ascetics are not at all involved with the activities, carried out by the householders, they do not perform major as well as minor violence. Ascetics strictly avoid internal aspects of violence (Bhäva Hinsä) and avoid external violence also (Dravya Hinsä). The ascetics observe Ahinsä in a nine-fold way as laid down by Jain scriptures: they avoid committing Hinsä by the self, through others or encouraging someone else, and by the speech, mind and body (3 x 3 = 9).

This complete renunciation of Hinsä in all nine ways may seem difficult and may raise the questions, such as "what about when they walk, sit, sleep, take meals, or speak?” Even though these questions pose a problem, it has been answered in the following way:

"The ascetic should walk, sit, sleep, and take meals with care and vigilance to avoid injury to any living beings.” This way, according to the Jain scriptures, an ascetic can practice Ahinsä to the maximum extent possible.

Denunciation of Hinsä (Violence)

Taking into account the bad and reprehensible nature of Hinsä, the Jain sacred texts have condemned the observance of Hinsä in the strongest possible terms.

In the 'Ächäräng Sutra’, it has been specifically mentioned that as Hinsä is a great impediment in spiritual awakening. A person who indulges in Hinsä will not get enlightenment and it has been asserted that, "Hinsä is always harmful and injurious to the wrong doer, and it is the main cause of his non-enlightenment.” Similarly, in the "Sutra-krutäng Sutra" All injurious activities have been categorically denounced. " Knowing that all the evils and sorrows arise from injury to living beings, and that it leads to unending enmity and hatred, and is the root cause of great fear, a wise man, who has become awakened, should refrain from all sinful activities".

On the same lines, in the "Uttarädhyayan Sutra" Any kind of injury to living beings is censured in the following terms. "Seeing that everything that happens to somebody concerns (affects) him personally, one should be friendly towards (all) beings; being completely free from fear and hatred, one should never injure any living beings". In a similar strain, in the "Dasha Vaikälika Sutra" practice of Hinsä is prohibited on the following ground that is, "All living creatures desire to live. Nobody wishes to die and hence it is that the Jain monks avoid the terrible sin of injury to living beings".

Similarly, the most reprehensible nature of Hinsä has been emphatically brought out in the 'Jnänärnava' in the following words that is, "Hinsä alone is a gateway to the miserable state, it is also the ocean of sin, it is itself terrible hell and it is surely the most dense darkness.” In the same sacred text "Jnänärnava" the futility of Hinsä has been very vividly brought out that is, "If a person is accustomed to commit injury, then his all virtues like selflessness, greatness, difficult penance, bodily suffering and liberality or munificence are worthless."

Rejection of Eating Animal Food

The observance of Ahinsä-Vrata invariably means the total rejection of the practice of meat eating on many grounds. In the first place, flesh cannot be procured without causing destruction of life, which is nothing but blatant Hinsä. Secondly, even if the flesh is procured from an animal, which has met with a natural death, even then by the consumption of the meat, Hinsä caused by the killing of micro organisms spontaneously born in the flesh. In addition, the pieces of flesh, which are raw, or cooked, or are in the process of being cooked, are found constantly generating spontaneously born creatures of the same genus. Hence, for these valid reasons a person must completely renounce meat eating which unquestionably involves Hinsä.

What Do Vegetarians Eat?

The staples of a vegetarian diet are grain, legumes, vegetables, fruit, nuts, and seeds. Protein can be obtained easily through a variety of grains and legumes. Fiber and essential vitamins, minerals, and carbohydrates can be obtained from many raw vegetables; iron especially is in rich green leafy vegetables.

Do Vegetarians Eat Dairy and Eggs?

Vegetarians who use dairy products are called lacto vegetarians. Those who do not even use dairy products are vegans. In particular, vegans believe that cow’s milk is meant for calves, not humans. Nowadays, dairy (milk, butter, ghee, ice-cream, cheese) foods are produced with cruelties, which vegetarians and vegans should refuse to support. In addition, the dairy industry is inherently linked to the meat industry. When female cows stop giving milk or reduces its quantity at a certain age, they are sent to the meat industry for slaughtering. If they give birth to a male calf, it is raised on an iron deficient diet, to make tender meat. Hence, one should not consume any dairy products in order to avoid cruelty to animals.

In poultry farms, chickens are considered no better than egg-producing machines. They are housed in small-congested cages known as chicken-havens. Due to shortage of space, they naturally become violent, offensive, obsessed and quarrelsome. They attack one another in a barbarous manner. To prevent them from fighting and wounding one another, they are de-beaked. Due to de-beaking, they are unable even to drink water.

A fertilized egg is a pre-birth stage of a chicken. To eat fertilized egg is in fact to consume a chicken before its birth. Unfertilized eggs are the result of the sexual cycle of a chicken and very unnatural. The egg produced without any contact with the male bird (and thus producing an infertile egg) is also animate because it is born out of the chicken’s body with its blood and cells. No egg - fertile or infertile - is without life (inanimate). Both are non-vegetarian food.

Animal Cruelty and Ecological Impact

Planet earth is suffering. In large measure, the escalating loss of species, destruction of ancient rain forests to create pasturelands for livestock, loss of topsoil and the consequent increase of water impurities and air pollution have all been traced to the single fact of non-vegetarian food (meat, chicken, and dairy products) in the human diet. No single decision that we can make as individuals or as a race can have such a dramatic effect on the improvement of our planetary ecology as the decision to not eat non-vegetarian food. Many seeking to save the planet for future generations have made this decision for this reason and this reason alone.

The choice of a vegetarian (absolutely no animal products) diet is an expression of a sincere consideration for the ecology of the planet as well. In addition, there are billions of starving people who can be fed if only the raising of livestock was stopped. Consider these facts:

Slaughtering of Animals in USA

· Cattle - 130,000 slaughtered per day

· Calves - 7,000 slaughtered per day

· Hogs - 360,000 slaughtered per day

· Chickens - 24,000,000 slaughtered per day

Cruelty to Cows by Dairy Industries

· Cows are kept pregnant continually

· Slaughtering their 70% to 80% of baby calves within six months by Veal industry or within five years by beef industry

· Slaughtering the mother cows after five years of their fertile life (life expectancy is 15 years)

· Everyday hormones or drugs are injected to increase milk yield.

Greenhouse Effect

· World’s 1.3 billion cows annually produce 100 million tons of methane a powerful greenhouse gas which traps 25 times as much solar heat as CO2

Water Consumption

· Slaughtering animals requires hundreds of millions of gallons of water every day. The waste in these places, estimated at about two billion tons a year, mostly ends up in waterways, polluting and killing thousands of fish, and creating a human health problem.

· Livestock (Cattle, Calves, Hogs, Pigs) production accounts for more than half of all the water consumed in USA.

Land Usage

· A third of the surface of North America is devoted to grazing

· Half of American croplands grow livestock feed for meat and dairy products

· 2% of US cropland produces fruits and vegetables, while 64% of US cropland is for producing livestock feed

· One acre of prime land can make 5,000 lb. of Cherries, 10,000 lb. of Green beans, 30,000 lb. of Carrots, 40,000 lb. of Potatoes, 50,000 lb. of Tomatoes, or 250 lb. of Beef

· 220 million acres of land in the USA have been deforested for livestock production

· 85% of annual US topsoil loss is directly associated with raising livestock

· 25 million acres in Brazil, and half the forests in Central America

Cost Comparison

· The cost of raw materials consumed to produce food from livestock is greater than the value of all oil, gas and coal consumed in America.

· Growing grains, vegetables and fruits uses less than 5% as much raw materials as does meat and dairy production

· 2 calories of fossil fuel used for 1 calorie of protein of soybeans, while 78 calories of fossil fuel used for 1 calorie of beef

· 6.9 kg of grain and soy to make 1 kg of boneless trimmed pork

Solution to World Hunger Problem

According to Diet For A New America:

If Americans reduce their meat/dairy intake by just 10%, the savings in grains and soybeans could feed 60 million people per year worldwide. About 24,000 people die every day from hunger or hunger-related causes. Three-fourths of the deaths are children under the age of five.

Rejection of Drinking Liquor

For the observance of the Nonviolence Vow (Ahinsä –Vrata), it has been specifically laid down that a person should renounce drinking alcohol. According to the sacred text of Purushärtha Siddhi-Upäya, “alcohol stupefies the mind; one whose mind is stupefied forgets piety; and the person who forgets piety commits violence without hesitation.” Again, it is important to understand that drinking liquor leads to the commitment of violence because liquor is the reservoir of many lives, which are born in it. Similarly, it is significant that many dishonorable passions like anger, pride, deceit, greed, fear, disgust, ridicule, grief, boredom, and lust, arise due to the inhibition of senses while drinking liquor and these passions are nothing but different aspects of violence. In addition, inevitable Hinsä is involved in the process of fermentation of the alcohol. Great Jain saints, Somadeva and Asadhara refer to the immense number of living beings (Jivs) transformed into a drop of alcohol.

Abandonment of Honey

Along with the renunciation of liquor drinking and meat eating, giving up of honey is also included in the observance of the non-violence vow. The use of honey invariably entails the destruction of life as even the smallest drop of honey in the world represents the death of bees. It is also clear that even if a person uses honey, which has been obtained by some, trick from a honeycomb or has dropped down from it, there is violence because there is destruction to the lives spontaneously born therein. In addition, it is important to note that it takes nearly a million bees to create 1 pound of honey.

Dress and Decoration

Jains are required to pursue the path of nonviolence in the way they dress also. They should not wear furs and the plumes that are obtained by torturing, and then killing animals and birds. For the same reason, the use of silk and woolen garments is prohibited for all Jains. We should also avoid all leather articles.

Basic Positive Aspects of Ahinsä

Even though the doctrine of Ahinsä has been given utmost importance by Jainism in the ethical code laid down for constant observance by all sections of the society and its practicability has stood the test of time since for many centuries, still a charge is made against the doctrine of Ahinsä to the effect that it is essentially negative in character in the sense that it always prohibits persons from doing certain activities. It is argued that in Jainism Ahinsä is treated as mere abstention from Hinsä, and that by applying this principle of abstinence of activities in different fields, people are negatively advised such as not to speak lies, not to steal things, not to become unchaste, not to have worldly attachments. However, from a close scrutiny of the vow of Ahinsä and its implications in the actual life of persons, it is well evident that the charge is quite unfounded. It is true that Jainism does put some severe restrictions on the conduct of persons in their worldly life. These restrictions have been levied with a view to provide guidelines to the person so that they can commit as little injury as possible to other living beings, while discharging their duties and carrying out their normal avocations. However, it must be noted that the meaning of Ahinsä has not been confined to this negative aspect only; it has definitely been extended so as to include the positive aspect also in it. That is why it has been strongly advocated in Jainism that the householders should always strive to extend charity to others who are in need of help, along with the observance of restrictions levied on their conduct. It means that the positive aspect has been made an inherent part of the doctrine of Ahinsä.

Hence it has been enjoined upon the householders: to follow the practice of giving Däna (religious gifts or charity); to organize the welfare activities with the help of charities for the benefit not only of the weaker sections of society but also for animals and birds; and to indoctrinate the spirit of toleration towards the followers of other faiths or religions.

Däna (Encouragement to Grant Charities)

As a fundamental part of the observance of the vow of Ahinsä, it has been specifically laid down that the householders should make it a point to give Däna regularly from their income. Thus, the principle of Däna has been given great importance in Jainism.

In connection with the meaning of the term Däna, it has been stated in the authoritative Jain work Tattvärtha Sutra: "Charity is the giving of one's belongings for the good of one's self and of others.” Such a charity or gifts always recommended because in giving one's belongings to others one exercises control over his greed which is nothing but a form of Hinsä. That is why, in the interest of the cultivation of Ahinsä, the practice of giving Däna is recommended in the celebrated standard sacred Jain text of Purushärtha-Siddhi-Upäya. "In making a gift one gets over greed, which is a form of Hinsä, and hence gifts made to worthy recipients amount to a renunciation of Hinsä (observance of Ahinsä).” In the same text, it has been stated that a person automatically becomes greedy if he does not give charity to worthy guests, as follows: "Why should a person be not called greedy if he does not give gift to a guest who visits his home, who is well qualified and who, acting like a honey-bee, accepts gifts without causing any injury to others?” It means that the practice of giving gifts tantamount to the practice of Ahinsä.

Further, with a view to raising the purity involved in giving gifts and in the practice of Ahinsä, it is laid down that the donor must have the following seven qualities:

· Aihika-phalanapekshä (not expecting any gain or reward in this world in exchange of gifts given by him)

· Kshänti (forbearance, and calmness, which means the donor should not get excited if an unexpected or unfavorable thing happens while he is engaged in the pious act of giving gifts)

· Muditva (feelings of happiness and a joyous appearance at the time of giving gifts)

· Nishkapatatä (sincerity and lack of deceit)

· Anasuyatva (no feelings of jealousy or envy)

· Avishäditva (no feelings of sorrow or regret for giving the gift)

· Nirahankäritva (no sense of pride in giving gifts as pride is certainly a bad condition of mind)

On the basis of various conditions laid down for giving gift pertaining to the qualifications of the donors and the donees, Däna is classified into three types as follows:

· Sättvika Däna, a virtuous or righteous gift, a gift offered to a worthy donee by a donor possessing the seven Dätru-Gunas (qualifications of a good donor)

· Räjasa Däna, a passionate or emotional gift, a gift offered in self-advertisement for monetary display and in deference to the opinion of others

· Tämasa Däna, a vicious gift, a gift offered through the agency of slaves or servants without considering whether the recipient is good or worthy or unworthy and without showing marks of respect.

Of these three types of Dänas, the Sättvika Däna is regarded as the Uttama Däna, the best gift; the Räjasa Däna as the Madhyama Däna, the moderate or the secondary gift; and the Tämasa Däna as the Jaghanya Däna, the worst or the detestable gift.

Again, for the sake of giving Däna it is not required that the Däna should necessarily be of a large quantity. On the contrary, the householders are advised to extend even small gifts but they should take care that these small gifts are given to the deserving persons. Such a kind of small gift is praised in the standard sacred Jain work "Ratna-karanda Shrävakächär" as follows: "Even a small Däna (gift) given to a proper or suitable donee bears much desirable fruit for souls in the fullness of time, just as the tiny seed of a fig tree, sown in good soil, produces a tree, casting magnificent shade.”

Thus, the Jain scriptures not only encourage the householders to give gifts to persons but also invariably stress that the conditions laid down and considered proper for the Donor (giver), the gift and the Donee should always be followed because these three things by means of mutual influencing definitely increase the sanctity of the entire process.

Moreover, for the sake of maintaining the sanctity of Däna it has been enjoined upon the donors to see that the Däna is always given only to proper persons. The donee, that is, the person to whom Däna is given, is termed as Pätra and for the purposes of the gift the donees are classified into three categories.

Supätra	Good donee (those who have the right belief and engrossed in practicing vows),
Kupätra	Deficient donee (those with proper external conduct but without real right belief)
Apätra	Unworthy donee (those who have neither proper external conduct nor real right belief).

Support to Welfare Activities

It is pertinent to note that the Jain scriptures have not only laid down well-thought out conditions to be observed in the process of giving Däna; but have also considerably widened the scope and extent of Däna, both from the point of the recipients of the Däna and from the contents of the Däna. The Däna, with reference to its recipients, has also been divided into two classes, Pätra-Däna and Karunä-Däna. The Pätra-Däna means gifts or offerings made with respect and devotion to worthy recipients and in accordance with the necessary conditions laid down for observance by the people. Such worthy recipients are generally the Jain persons, (including the householders and the ascetics) who have right belief and are continuously engrossed in practicing vows prescribed for their stage in life. But the Karunä-Däna means gifts or offerings made out of compassion to any one who deserves it, being hungry, thirsty, diseased, distressed, disabled, helpless, or the like. Further, the Karunä-Däna, or the gift of compassion, is extremely wide in its scope. In fact, it is not restricted to Jains alone but it is extended to human and even to sub-human beings that are in need of it.

Such a Karunä-Däna is popularly considered of four kinds:

Ähär-Däna	Gift of food,
Aushadhi-Däna	Gift of medicines and helping sick
Abhay-Däna	Extending fearlessness, Gift of shelter to living beings who are at risk of their life, protection from danger, attack, intimidation, or threat
Vidhyä (Jnän)-Däna	Gift of books, imparting of knowledge, and helping educational institutions useful and beneficial.

These four gifts together are formed as "Chaturvidha-Däna", or a four-fold charity and it has been enjoined on the householders that they should make special efforts to give these charities to the needy beings belonging to the human and animal categories.

Ächärya Amitagati, the renowned author, in his book "Shrävakächär" has praised the utmost importance of Ähär-Däna as follows: "There is no knowledge better than 'Keval-Jnän', omniscient knowledge, no happiness better than happiness secured from Nirvana, liberation of soul, and no gift better than 'Ähär-Däna', gift of food.” On the same lines, the Jain scriptures have greatly valued the other three gifts of medicines, shelter and knowledge to all living beings with a view to take practical steps to ameliorate the miserable conditions of afflicted living beings including insects, birds, animals and men. Many Ächäryas consider Abhay- Däna as the best charity. Indirectly, it envelopes other forms of charity. For example, Ähär- Däna removes the fear resulting from being hungry and associated Kashäy.

Furthermore, this positive humanitarian approach to lessen the miseries of living beings was also included in another significant manifestation of Ahinsä in the fifth main vow of the householders, Aparigraha-Vrata, abstention from greed of worldly possessions. It is obvious that this greed is a form of Hinsä, and injury and as such, it has to be consistently avoided by all persons as a part of the observance of Ahinsä in the different fields of activities in actual life. This vow aims at putting a limit on the worldly possessions by individuals according to their needs and desires. That is why this vow of Aparigraha is many times termed as Parigraha-Parimäna-Vrata, the vow to limit one's worldly possessions. In accordance with this vow, a householder is required to fix, beforehand, the limit of his maximum belongings, and he cannot exceed it. If he ever happens to earn more than the pre-determined limit, he is required to give it away in ''Chaturvidha-Däna'', four-fold charities popularly known as 'Ähär-Abhay-Bhaishajya-Shästra-Däna', giving food to the hungry and the poor, saving the lives of creatures in danger, distribution of medicines and spread of knowledge.

In this connection, it is pertinent to note that as a part of the implementation of the vow of Ahinsä including the vow of Aparigraha, for several centuries the Jain householders have made it one of their cardinal principles to give these four gifts to all persons who are in need of such help. In fact, this help has been extended to the protection and well being of insects, birds and animals also. For this the Jains have established alms-houses, rest houses, dispensaries and educational institutions wherever they have been concentrated in good numbers. The, alms-houses, are being conducted in pilgrim and other centers for the benefit of poor people. In the rest houses (Dharma-Shälä), lodging arrangements are being provided without any charges or at nominal charges at important towns, cities and pilgrim places. The, dispensaries, have been providing free medicines to the afflicted persons. Along with the dispensaries for men, the Jains have been conducting special institutions known as Panjarapols for the protection and care of helpless and decrepit animals and birds. In unusual times of flood and famine, these Panjarapols have been carrying out various activities for animal protection. There is hardly any town or village of Gujarat or Rajasthan, where Panjarapol is not present in some form or the other.

Even now the Jains have been vigorously maintaining the tradition of organizing welfare activities for the benefit of all concerned by giving freely these, four types of gifts, in all parts of India.

Insistence on the Spirit of Toleration

The positive aspect of Ahinsä, as enunciated by Jain scriptures, is extended to the insistence on the spirit of toleration in addition to the encouragement to the grant of charities and the support to the organization for welfare activities. The Jain scriptures have made the doctrine of Ahinsä extremely comprehensive and have advocated the observance of Ahinsä systematically and to the minutest details. It means that in accordance with the doctrine of Ahinsä, injury through the activities of speech and mind has to be avoided along with the usual injury of physical type. In other words, for the observance of Ahinsä, the attitude of tolerance in the intellectual, religious and other fields assumes great importance. This attitude of tolerance has been propounded by Jain scriptures through the doctrine of Anekäntaväda, the Theory of Multiplicity, which states that a thing can be considered from many points of view. That is why the tenet of Anekäntaväda always advises the people to find out the truth in anything after taking into account all aspects of that thing. This obviously broadens the outlook of the persons as they are made to look at a thing from different angles. At the same time, the principle of Anekäntaväda does not engender the feelings of enmity or hatred towards the other religionists because it believes that other religions also would be having some truths from their points of view. Hence, by enunciating the principle of Anekäntaväda, the Jain scriptures have strongly advocated the principle of tolerance and emphatically asserted that it could be applied to intellectual, religious, social and other fields of activities.

In this connection it can be maintained that toleration is the characteristic of Jain ideology because Jainism has always held that it is wrong, if not dangerous, to presume that one's own creed alone represents the Truth. As a consequence the Jain scriptures have always advised the Jains of all ranks not to harbor any feelings of enmity and hatred towards the followers of other religions, but on the contrary to have a spirit of toleration and cooperation with reference to the members of other religions and even denominations. Accordingly, the Jains have been consistently observing the principle of intellectual and religious toleration. Even the Jain Monarchs and Generals of the Armed Forces have a clean and commendable record to their credit in this regard. The political history of India knows no cases of persecution by Jain kings, even when Jain monks and laymen have greatly suffered at the hands of other religionists of fanatical temper. In this respect, Dr. B. A. Saletore, the famous historian of Karnatak India, has rightly observed as follows: "The principle of Ahinsä was partly responsible for the greatest contribution of the Jains to Hindu culture-that relating to toleration. Whatever may be said concerning the rigidity with which they maintained their religious Tenets and the tenacity and skill with which they met and defeated their opponents in religious disputations, yet it cannot be denied that the Jains fostered the principle of toleration more sincerely and at the same time more successfully than any other community in India".